R owns an electronics store. P visited the store to buy a water purifier priced at ₹54,000/-. He specifically requested R for a purifier with a copper filter. As P wanted to buy the purifier on credit, with the intention of paying in 9 equal monthly instalments, R demands a guarantor for the transaction. S (a friend of P) came forward and gave the guarantee for payment of water purifier. R sold P, a water purifier of a specific brand. P made payment for 4 monthly instalments and after that became insolvent. Explain with reference to the Indian Contract Act, 1872, the liability of S as a guarantor to pay the balance price of water purifier to R. What will be your answer, if R sold the water purifier misrepresenting it as having a copper filter, while it actually has a normal filter? Neither P nor S was aware of this fact and upon discovering the truth, P refused to pay the price. In response to P's refusal, R filed the suit against S, the guarantor. Explain with reference to the Indian Contract Act 1872, whether S is liable to pay the balance price of water purifier to R?

A company, ABC limited as on 31.03.2023 had a paid-up capital of ₹ 1 lakh (10,000 equity shares of ₹ 10 each). In June 2023, ABC limited had issued additional 10,000 equity shares of ₹ 10 each which was fully subscribed. Out of 10,000 shares, 5,000 of these shares were issued to XYZ private limited company. XYZ is a holding company of PQR private limited by having control over the composition of its board of directors. Now, PQR private limited claims the status of being a subsidiary of ABC limited as being a subsidiary of its subsidiary i.e. XYZ private limited. Examine the validity of the claim of PQR private limited. State the relationship if any, between ABC limited & XYZ private limited as per the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013.

The Indian Partnership Act does not make the registration of firms compulsory, yet the consequences or disabilities of non-registration have a persuasive pressure for their registration. Still, there are come cases where non-registration of firm does not affect certain rights. Explain with reference to the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.